Salicaceae Mirb.

First published in Elém. Physiol. Vég. Bot. 2: 905. 1815 [24-30 Jun 1815] (as "Salicineae") (1815)nom. cons.
This family is accepted

Descriptions

Salicaceae, C.M. Wilmot-Dear. Flora of Tropical East Africa. 1985

Morphology General Habit
Dioecious trees or shrubs
Morphology Leaves
Leaves alternate; stipules small or foliaceous, usually deciduous
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers grouped into unisexual catkins, often appearing before leaves; each flower subtended by a bract; perianth absent; disc present, often forming one or more fleshy glands Male flower with 2–many stamens; filaments filiform, free or united; anthers 2-thecous, dehiscing longitudinally Female flower with 1-locular ovary, 2–4 parietal placentas and numerous ovules; style 2–4-fid
sex Male
Male flower with 2–many stamens; filaments filiform, free or united; anthers 2-thecous, dehiscing longitudinally
sex Female
Female flower with 1-locular ovary, 2–4 parietal placentas and numerous ovules; style 2–4-fid
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a capsule, dehiscing longitudinally into 2–4 valves
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds numerous, very small, with large tuft of long hairs arising from funicle; embryo straight; endosperm absent
[FTEA]

Salicaceae, R.D. Meikle. Flora of West Tropical Africa 1:2. 1958

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs
Morphology Leaves
Leaves alternate, simple, deciduous; stipules small or foliaceous
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers unisexual, dioecious, densely arranged in erect or pendulous catkins often appearing before the leaves; bracts membranous, each subtending a flower Female flowers: ovary sessile or shortly stipitate, 1-celled, with 2–4 parietal placentas; style 2–4-fid Male flowers: stamens 2 or more, free or united; anthers 2-celled, opening lengthwise
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Calyx absent or represented by a cupular disk or 2 glandular scales
sex Male
Male flowers: stamens 2 or more, free or united; anthers 2-celled, opening lengthwise
sex Female
Female flowers: ovary sessile or shortly stipitate, 1-celled, with 2–4 parietal placentas; style 2–4-fid
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium
Ovules numerous, ascending
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a 2–4-valved capsule
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds small, with numerous fine hairs arising from the funicle and enveloping the seed; endosperm none; embryo straight
[FWTA]

Gemma Bramley, Anna Trias-Blasi & Richard Wilford (2023). The Kew Temperate Plant Families Identification Handbook. Kew Publishing Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Recognition
Characters of similar families: Betulaceae (including Corylaceae): leaf margin doubly serrate, staminate flowers often in cymules, fruit a nut. Celastraceae: stamens 3–5, alternate with petals, ovary rarely 1-locular. Euphorbiaceae and Phyllanthaceae: flowers unisexual, ovary usually 3-locular, placentation axile-apical. Rhamnaceae: calyx tubular at base, petals usually present, usually hooded enclosing anther, stamens 4–5, ovary rarely 1-locular. Rhizophoraceae (only Cassipourea flanaganii or C. malosana, confused with Pseudoscolopia): stipules interpetiolar, petal apex divided.
Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs
Morphology General Hair
Hairs usually simple
Morphology Leaves Stipules
Stipules generally present
Morphology Leaves
Leaves simple, alternate, rarely opposite, sometimes pellucid-punctate or -striate, usually toothed, tooth apex often with spherical (e.g. temperate genera) or papillate gland, venation pinnate or palmate
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Inflorescence axillary or terminal, flowers solitary or in fascicles, cymes, corymbs, racemes, catkins (e.g. Salix and Populus) or panicles
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic, often small; sepals 0 (Salix and Populus) or (2–)3–5(–22), then free or partly fused, rarely conduplicate, petals 0 (e.g. most temperate genera), or generally isomerous with and similar to sepals, free; disk glands or nectary scales often present, at stamen bases, inter- or extra-staminal or -gynoecial, or a cup adnate to inside of calyx, or a single disk bearing gynoecium or stamens; stamens (1–)2–150, free, often exserted, sometimes on disk rim alternating with disk-lobes; ovary superior, rarely semi-inferior, 1-locular, rarely falsely divided, placentation parietal, rarely basal (Salix or Populus)
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit usually a capsule (rarely with outer layer shedding, and placentae woody, persistent), or a berry
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seed 1–many, often arillate, rarely winged, or with a coma of hairs (Salix and Populus).
Distribution
About 55 genera, 1,200 species. Cosmopolitan, with 8 predominantly temperate genera: Salix (ca. 450 species) and Populus, which form dominant and extensive northern forest and are economically important; Azara in temperate South America; Pseudoscolopia in South Africa (Near Threatened); and Idesia, Poliothyrsis, Carrierea and Itoa in mixed forest in temperate and northern subtropical regions of Asia.
Note
Trees, shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, often with glands, often toothed. Flowers often small, petals free, generally isomerous with sepals or absent; disk or disk glands typically present; ovary superior, 1-locular, placentation parietal, rarely basal. Fruit a berry or capsule, seed often arillate.
Description Author
Sue Zmarzty
[KTEMP-FIH]

Salicaceae, C. M. Wilmot-Dear. Flora Zambesiaca 9:6. 1991

Morphology General Habit
Dioecious trees or shrubs
Morphology Leaves
Leaves alternate, deciduous; stipules small or foliaceous, usually deciduous
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers grouped into unisexual catkins, often appearing before the leaves; each flower subtended by a bract; perianth absent; disk present, often forming one or more fleshy glands Male flower with 2-many stamens, filaments filiform, free or united, anthers 2-thecous, dehiscing longitudinally Female flower: ovary 1-locular with 2–4 parietal placentas, ovules numerous, style 2–4-fid
sex Male
Male flower with 2-many stamens, filaments filiform, free or united, anthers 2-thecous, dehiscing longitudinally
sex Female
Female flower: ovary 1-locular with 2–4 parietal placentas, ovules numerous, style 2–4-fid
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a capsule, dehiscing longitudinally into 2–4 valves
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds numerous, very small, with a large tuft of long hairs arising from the funicle; embryo straight; endosperm absent
[FZ]

George R. Proctor (2012). Flora of the Cayman Isands (Second Edition). Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs, sometimes dioecious. Leaves simple, alternate to subopposite, rarely opposite, with or without stipules; margins often with salicoid dentation
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Inflorescence terminal or axillary, very diverse, commonly in the form of racemes, spikes, catkins, panicles, corymbs, short cymes, glomerules, or reduced to a solitary flower. Flowers unisexual or bisexual, often small
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Sepals (0–)3–8(–15), valvate or imbricate, free or partly connate toward base; calyx occasionally obconical or turbinate and connate with lower part of ovary
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Corolla
Petals either absent or equal in number and similar to the sepals, free
Disc
Disc usually present and cup-like and more or less adnate to adaxial surface of calyx, or annular and extrastaminal, or divided into separate glands
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Androecium Stamens
Stamens (1–)2-numerous, inserted singly or in groups on the receptacle, often between the disc lobes or glands, occasionally united into a column; anthers usually small, ovoid or elliptic, rarely linear
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium Ovary
Ovary superior or less often semi-inferior, unilocular; styles 1–8, entire or branched
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a berry or capsule, or less often a drupe or samara; seeds often arillate.
Distribution
A world-wide family of 52 genera and more than 1,200 species occurring from the tropics to arctic regions.
[Cayman]

Timothy M. A. Utteridge and Laura V. S. Jennings (2022). Trees of New Guinea. Kew Publishing. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Distribution
A cosmopolitan family of 56 genera and c. 1200 species, traditionally placed in a larger Flacourtiaceae with those genera now placed in the Achariaceae (q.v.), and was treated as the Flacourtiaceae in the Flora Malesiana treatment.
Recognition
The Salicaceae are difficult to characterise, and have often been the family ‘of last resort’ (together with Euphorbiaceae) for stipulate, alternate leaved plants with small unisexual flowers. In New Guinea, members of the family have simple, alternate leaves often with serrulate margins with the veins running to the margin and ending in teeth, uni- or bisexual flowers, free stamens, 1-locular ovary with parietal placentation. Euphorbiaceae and Phyllanthaceae have a 3-locular with apical placentation with many members having dehiscent fruits leaving a distinct central columella.
Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs
Morphology General
Sometimes armed
Morphology General Indumentum
Hairs usually simple
Morphology Leaves Stipules
Stipules present or absent
Morphology Leaves
Leaves simple, alternate, rarely opposite, sometimes pellucid-punctate/striate, usually toothed, tooth apex often with spherical or papillate gland
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Inflorescence axillary or terminal, flowers solitary or in fascicles, cymes, racemes or panicles
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic, often small; pedicel usually articulated; sepals (2–)3‒5(‒22), free or partly fused into a lobed cup or tube, rarely absent; petals free, usually isomerous with and similar to sepals, or petals absent; disk usually present, often as several glands/nectaries or as a lobed cup; stamens (3–)4‒150, free, sometimes alternating with disk-lobes; ovary superior, sometimes semi-inferior, 1-locular, rarely falsely divided, placentation parietal-Fruit a berry or capsule, rarely a drupe, or with accrescent sepals and/or petals (Homalium), style(s) often persistent in fruit
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seed 1‒many, often arillate, rarely winged or with long hairs
[TONG]

Milliken, W., Klitgard, B. and Baracat, A. (2009 onwards), Neotropikey - Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs, with or without thorns or spines Herbs sometimes with a woody base, rarely  sub -shrubs, indumentum of stalked or sessile glandular hairs occasionally present, secretory cavities appear as red or brownish lines on inflorescence or as dots or uneven lines on calyx and bracts
Morphology Leaves
Leaves alternate or rarely opposite or subopposite (Abatia Ruiz & Pav.), simple, pinnately or palmately veined, sometimes acrodromous perfect (3-veined from base to apex : Lunania Hook., Neosprucea Sleumer); margins entire to crenate, serrate, dentate, or spinose; leaf teeth, if present, with small conical, deciduous appendages or with persistent, papillate to globose to torus-(doughnut-)shaped glands; infrequently with stellate pubescence (some Abatia, Banara Aubl., Macrohasseltia L.O.Williams, Pineda Ruiz & Pav., Ryania Vahl); lamina sometimes with pellucid -punctations or -lines (tribe Samydeae); exstipulate or stipulate, stipules sometimes large and falcate (e.g., Prockia P.Browne ex L., Salix L.) or even leaf-like (Azara Ruiz & Pav.) Leaves in a basal rosette, sometimes with leaves alternate and spiraling up  stem simple, entire, leaf margins entire venation pinnate, petiolate, can appear sessile due to decurrent margins
Morphology Reproductive morphology
Sexuality various, usually hermaphroditic, polygamous, or dioecious
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Inflorescences axillary or terminal, catkins, spikes, racemes, panicles, cymes, corymbs, umbelliform cymes, fascicles, or glomerules, or reduced to single flowers Inflorescences terminal racemes, corymbs or panicles, single bract present at base or in middle of  pedicel or ebracteate
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers actinomorphic or irregular (tribe Saliceae), often minute Flowers bisexual, pentamerous, actinomorphic, calyx tube adnate to ovary, persistent in fruit, corolla aestivation imbricate, connate into a tube, lobes broadly ovate; stamens 5, adnate to corolla, oppositipetalous; anthers dehiscing via longitudinal slits; staminodes 5, regularly present, adnate to corolla, alternipetalous; ovary mostly inferior, syncarpous, carpels 5, unilocular, ovules many, style 1
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Hypanthium
Hypanthium present or absent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Sepals absent (tribe Saliceae), otherwise 3-15(-22), aestivation imbricate or valvate
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Corolla
Petals absent or 3-8(-12), aestivation imbricate or valvate
Disc
Disk sometimes present, in some groups appearing like thick staminodes and in other groups like globose nectaries, inside, alternating with, or outside the stamens
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Androecium Stamens
Stamens (1-)2-numerous, sometimes in epipetalous bundles; anthers globose to linear -elongate; anther dehiscence introrse (tribe Samydeae), extrorse, or latrorse (Lunania), dehiscence usually longitudinal (± poricidal in Neosprucea)
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium
Gynoecium of 1 pistil, ovary superior or half-inferior (Homalium Jacq.), generally unilocular (occasionally with septa in Dovyalis E.Mey. ex Arn., Flacourtia L'Her., Hasseltia Blume, Prockia), placentation parietal or pseudo- axile, styles 1-8, stigma capitate to lacerate to obscure
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a fleshy or dry berry, capsule, samara (Neopringlea S.Watson), or drupe (Flacourtia) Fruit dry, spherical, capsular, dehiscing loculicidally via 5 valves
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds 1-numerous, arillate or exarillate, sometimes covered in cottony hairs (Bartholomaea Standl. & Steyerm., Casearia Jacq. sect. Gossypiospermum Urb., Macrohasseltia) or with a coma (Populus L., Salix). Seeds numerous, small, angular, brownish.
Note
"Notes on delimitation: Salicaceae were traditionally a mostly temperate family consisting of two genera, Populus (poplars, cottonwoods, aspens) and Salix (willows). Recent phylogenetic analyses using DNA sequence data, however, indicate that Salicaceae sensustricto are nested within the non-cyanogenic taxa of the former Flacourtiaceae. These taxa have now been united into one family, the Salicaceae (Eurosids I: Malpighiales), which is closely related to Lacistemataceae, Passifloraceae, Violaceae, Achariaceae, and allied families. Some botanists (the author included) prefer to segregate one tribe of Salicaceae sensulato as a separate family (Samydaceae), leaving the rest as a Salicaceae sensumedio, but this approach has not been widely accepted. The former Flacourtiaceae have been a notorious family, principally because Flacourtiaceae are diverse morphologically and because the family has served as a garbage can for taxa of uncertain affinity. Several key studies in the past 30 years have mostly eliminated the latter problem, but unfortunately, the former ""problem"" continues to persist in the current Salicaceae sensulato. Thus, for the novice, the description and advice of Al Gentry is pertinent: ""One of the two most notoriously heterogeneous neotropical families. A good dictum for the beginner is: 'If you don't have any idea what family it is, try Flacourtiaceae [now mostly Salicaceae sensulato] or Euphorbiaceae'"" (Gentry, 1993)." Notes on delimitation: Samolaceae is a monogeneric family within the order Ericales and is sister to Theophrastaceae (Stahl 2004) - in which it is often included. If not found within Theophrastaceae then try Primulaceae where Samolus L. is generally placed in its own tribe, the Samoleae (Kallersjo et al. 2000). Number of genera: One: Samolus. Number of genera: Abatia (including Aphaerema Miers) - 10 spp. Azara - 10 spp. Banara - ca. 35 spp. Bartholomaea - 2 spp. Casearia (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - ca. 180 spp. worldwide, ca. 80 in the Neotropics. Dovyalis - ca. 15 spp. worldwide, 1 sp. infrequently cultivated in the Neotropics. Euceraea (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 3 spp. Flacourtia - ca. 15 spp. worldwide, 1(+?) sp. infrequently cultivated in the Neotropics. Hasseltia - 4 spp. Hasseltiopsis - 1 sp. Hecatostemon (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 1 sp. Homalium - ca. 200 worldwide, 3 in the Neotropics. Laetia - 10 spp. Lunania (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 14 spp. Macrohasseltia - 1 sp. Macrothumia - 1 sp. Neopringlea - 3 spp. Neoptychocarpus (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 2 spp. Neosprucea - 9 spp. Olmediella - 1 sp. Pineda - 2 spp. Pleuranthodendron - 1 sp. Populus - ca. 32 spp. worldwide, ca. 4 spp. in the Neotropics (2 native, 2 introduced and naturalized). Prockia - ca. 6 spp. Ryania (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - ca. 8 spp. Salix - ca. 450 spp. worldwide, 17 in the Neotropics (11 native, 5 introduced and 1 naturalized). Samyda (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 9 spp. Tetrathylacium (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 2 spp. Xylosma (including Priamosia Urb.) - ca. 95 spp. worldwide, ca. 50 in the Neotropics. Zuelania (sometimes placed in Samydaceae) - 1 sp. Berberidopsis Hook.f. is treated under Berberidopsidaceae. Lacistema Sw. and Lozania Mutis ex Caldas are treated under Lacistemataceae. Cyanogenic (former) Flacourtiaceae are treated under Achariaceae. In general, tropical members of the family Salicaceae have few economic uses. The more temperate genus Populus is fast-growing, used for wood, and now includes the first woody species to have its entire genome sequenced. The mostly temperate genus Salix is one of the early sources of aspirin precursors. Salix species (willows) are very important in management of ecosystems such as prevention of erosion, bioremediation of soil and they provide a specialised habitat for other organisms. Some willows are widely cultivated as ornamental plants and used in wicker furniture. Both Salix and Populus are potential biofuel sources. In the Neotropics, genera like Casearia and Macrohasseltia are occasionally used for wood, and the genus Ryania has toxic compounds used in poisons and insecticides. Despite their lack of use in the Neotropics, Salicaceae are common elements of tropical forests.
Distribution
Abatia Ruiz & Pav. (including Aphaerema Miers):  montane Central and South America, SE Brazil. Azara Ruiz & Pav.:  Chile, Argentina, Bolivia, and SE Brazil, mostly subtropical and temperate. Banara Aubl.:  Antilles, Mexico, Central and South America, especially diverse in the Antilles. Bartholomaea Standl. & Styerm.:  Mexico, Guatemala, and Belize. Casearia Jacq.:  Antilles, Mexico, Central and South America. Dovyalis E.Mey.:  cultivated for fruit, throughout. Euceraea Mart.:  South America. Flacourtia L.'Her.:  cultivated for fruit, throughout. Hasseltia Blume:  Central and South America. Hasseltiopsis Sleumer:  Central America. Hecatostemon S.F.Blake:  northern South America. Homalium Jacq.:  Antilles, Mexico, Central and South America. Laetia Loefl.:  Antilles, Central and South America. Lunania Hook.:  Antilles, Central and South America, most diverse in the Antilles. Macrohasseltia L.O.Williams:  Central America. Macrothumia M.H.Alford:  Brazil. Neopringlea S.Watson:  Mexico and Guatemala. Neoptychocarpus Buchheim: South America. Neosprucea Sleumer:  Panama and South America. Olmediella Baill.:  Mexico and Central America. Pineda Ruiz & Pav.:  montane Ecuador, Peru, and Bolivia. Pleuranthodendron L.O.Williams:  Central and South America. Populus L.:  Mexico, but infrequently cultivated elsewhere. Prockia P.Beowne ex L.:  Antilles, Mexico, Central and South America. Ryania Vahl:  Central and South America. Salix L.: Mexico, Central and South America. Samyda Jacq.:  Antilles, Mexico, and Central America. Tetrathylacium Poepp. & Endl.:  Central and South America. Xylosma G.Forst. (including Priamosia Urb.):  Antilles, Mexico, Central and South America. Zuelania A.Rich.:  Antilles, Central and northern South America. Native. Approximately 12 species found with a cosmopolitan distribution. Especially prevalent around salt-marshes. C. 2 species found throughout the Neotropics. Abatia (including Aphaerema) - Endemic Azara - Endemic Banara - Endemic Bartholomaea - Endemic Casearia - Native Dovyalis - Cultivated Euceraea - Endemic Flacourtia - Cultivated Hasseltia - Endemic Hasseltiopsis - Endemic Hecatostemon - Endemic Homalium - Native Laetia - Endemic Lunania - Endemic Macrohasseltia - Endemic Macrothumia - Endemic Neopringlea - Endemic Neoptychocarpus - Endemic Neosprucea - Endemic Olmediella - Endemic Pineda - Endemic Pleuranthodendron - Endemic Populus - Native, cultivated and naturalized. Prockia - Endemic Ryania - Endemic Salix - Native, cultivated and naturalized. Samyda - Endemic Tetrathylacium - Endemic Xylosma (including Priamosia) - Native Zuelania - Endemic
Diagnostic
Distinguishing characters (always present): Semi-inferior ovary; formed from an incompletely formed hypanthium (Kallersjo et al. 2000). Capsular fruit. Terminalinflorescence. Flower parts in sets of 5. Bisexual, actinomorphic flowers. Petals fused to form a corolla tube. Stamens 5 and opposite and adnate to the petals. Carpels 5. Style 1 (forming the superior part of the ovary). Pubescent. Floral parts with red or brown streaks or spots. Leaves alternating up the stem but primarily in a basalrosette. Leaves petiolate but can look as if sessile. Single bract present at the base of, or midway along, the peduncle. White corolla, sometimes pink or purple. 5 staminodes alternating with and connected to the opening of the corolla tube. Calyxpersistent in fruit. Fruitglobose opening by 5 valves. Numerous seeds. Key differences from similar families: Differs from Theophrastaceae in having: Dry fruits. A partly inferior ovary. Small angular seeds. Differs from Primulaceae in having: A partly inferior ovary. Placentation usually parietal (axile or pseudo-axile in few genera). Leaves pellucid-punctate or -lineate in tribe Samydeae. Leaves usually alternate (except opposite in Abatia) and commonly toothed. Non-cyanogenic. Key differences from similar families: Salicaceae can be confused with a large number of other families. They are commonly mistaken for Euphorbiaceae, Violaceae, or Malvales. Unlike Euphorbiaceae, many common Salicaceae have torus- (or doughnut-) shaped glands at the leaf teeth and never produce a milky latex. Salicaceae can usually be distinguished from Malvales if flower or fruit (and placentation) is available, but even then, some Salicaceae have highly intruded to pseudo-axile placentation; few Salicaceae also have stellate pubescence and petiolar pulvini, although not both in the same species (as currently known). Salicaceae tend to have more stamens (>5) and less elongate fruit than Violaceae. Infrequently, species of Salicaceae with pellucid -punctuations or -lines may be confused with Rutaceae, but the leaves of Rutaceae are usually compound and the flowers usually have an intrastaminal, annular nectary disk. The opposite-leaved Abatia is easily confused with Buddleja L. (Buddlejaceae) or Viburnum L.(Adoxaceae) in the vegetative state; again, leaf teeth are helpful. In flower, they can be distinguished because Abatia lacks petals and generally has more than 5 stamens, all free. Tribe Saliceae (Populus and Salix) may be confused with Lacistemataceae, a closely related family with catkin (or catkin -like) inflorescences. Lacistemataceae usually have bisexual flowers, some perianth, arillate seeds, and a single stamen with an expanded connective. Populus and Salix rarely have one stamen, are usually dioecious, apparently lack perianth (minute in Populus and only clear early in development), and generally have two or more stamens. "Key to genera of Neotropical Salicaceae See also Alford (2003) for an even more superficial key (Populus and Salix were not included; Macrothumia is treated as Banara; and a new species of Pineda keys incorrectly). 1. Leaves opposite ... Abatia 1. Leaves alternate — 2 2. Leaves 3-7-veined from the base — 3 2. Leaves pinnately veined — 18 3. Inflorescences of catkins, spikes, compound spikes, spike-like racemes, or panicles of spikes; leaves sometimes pellucid-punctate or -lineate — 43. Flowers solitary or inflorescences of fascicles, lax racemes, panicles, cymes, or compound umbelliform cymes; leaves never pellucid-punctate or -lineate — 7 4. Flowers unisexual; seeds with cottony pubescence; leaf margin usually crenate — 54. Flowers bisexual; seeds arillate; leaf margin usually entire or subserrate ... Lunania 5. Sepals present; inflorescences axillary and peduncled .... Bartholomaea 5. Sepals apparently absent; inflorescences sessile or terminating a leafy branch — 6 6. Buds with 3-10 overlapping scales, often resinous; nectary disk or glands lacking .... Populus 6. Buds with 1 scale, not resinous; disk gland(s) (nectary or nectaries) present .... Salix 7. Anthers linear-elongate, anther dehiscence ± poricidal; leaves often 3-veined from base to near apex with perpendicular tertiary veins... Neosprucea 7. Anthers globose, anther dehiscence longitudinal; leaves 3-veined from base to no more than 2/3 leaf length — 8 8. Fruit a capsule; seeds with cottony pubescence .... Macrohasseltia 8. Fruit a berry (rarely tardily dehiscent), drupe, or samara; seeds lacking cottony pubescence — 9 9. Dioecious; styles or style branches 4-8 — 109. Hermaphroditic (rarely polygamous or functionally androdioecious in Prockia); style — 13 10. Petals present in male flowers; unarmed; native — 1110. Petals absent in male flowers; frequently with thorns on the trunk or branches; cultivated and possibly naturalised — 12 11. Fruit a samara; stamens in bundles of 3 alternating with disk glands; petals lacking in female flowers ... Neopringlea 11b. Fruit a berry; stamens numerous (>20), not in bundles; petals present in female flowers ... Hasseltiopsis 12. Fruit a drupe; disk glands in a row outside the stamens; leaves (in Neotropical cultivated sp.) glabrous or glabrescent ... Flacourtia 12. Fruit a pubescentberry; disk glands alternating with stamens; leaves (in Neotropical cultivated sp.) with pubescence visible with the naked eye, especially on the veins... Dovyalis 13. Glands at leaf teeth (at maturity) abaxial and doughnut (= torus) shaped; disk glands lacking — 1413. Glands at leaf teeth, if present, marginal and papillate; disk glands present — 15 14. Inflorescence a raceme; placentation often pseudo-axile; petals sometimes lacking; stipules sometimes foliaceous; sexuality various ... Prockia 14. Inflorescence a panicle, raceme, or fascicle; placentation parietal to highly intruded parietal; petals present; stipules small, caducous; bisexual... Banara 15. Glands near apex of petiole, if present, usually not paired and not opposite each other; outer row of filamentous staminodes present .... Pineda 15. Glands at base of lamina or near apex of petiole paired and opposite each other; filamentous staminodes lacking — 16 16. Placentation axile or pseudo-axile; perianth persistent in fruit; a pair of elliptic leaf glands embedded in the base of the lamina... Hasseltia 16. Placentation parietal; perianth deciduous in fruit; a pair of cicular leaf glands projecting from the lamina-petiole junction or apex of the petiole — 17 17. Inflorescence a panicle; seed(s) 1 (or 2) per fruit... Pleuranthodendron 17. Inflorescence a raceme, this sometimes congested and fascicle- or umbel-like; seeds per fruit numerous ... Macrothumia 18. Leaf margins spinose — 1918. Leaf margins entire, crenate, or serrate — 20 19. Dioecious; sepals 7-15(-22); stamens numerous; leaves not pellucid-punctate or -lineate .... Olmediella 19. Bisexual; sepals 5-6; stamens 6-10; leaves sometimes pellucid-punctate or -lineate .... Casearia sect. Casearia informal group 'Ilicifoliae' — 20 20. Flowers lacking any obvious perianth; inflorescences of catkins; fruits capsules; seeds with cottony pubescence — 2120. Flowers with at least sepals present; inflorescences various, not catkins; fruits generally berries or tardily deshicent capsules; seeds usually lacking cottony pubescence (except Casearia sect. Gossypiospermum) — 22 21. Buds with 3-10 overlapping scales, often resinous; nectary disk or glands lacking .... Populus 21b. Buds with 1 scale, not resinous; disk gland(s) (nectary or nectaries) present .... Salix 22. Ovary inferior or semi-inferior ... Homalium 22. Ovary superior — 23 23. Inflorescences of spikes, compound spikes, or panicles of spikes — 2423. Flowers solitary or inflorescences of fascicles, racemes, cymes, or panicles — 26 24. Leaves pellucid-punctate or -lineate; stamens 8 ... Euceraea 24. Leaves not pellucid-punctate or -lineate; stamens 4 or 10-20 — 25 25. Stamens 10-20; foliaceous stipules sometimes present; leaves <10 cm long; sepals generally yellow ... Azara 25. Stamens 4; stipules not foliaceous; leaves >8 cm long; sepals generally white or red ... Tetrathylacium 26. Petals present — 2726. Petals absent — 28 27. Sepals and petals generally 3; disk glands lacking; outer filamentous staminodes lacking .... Banara 27. Sepals and petals (4-) 5 (-6); disk glands present; outer filamentous staminodes present .... Pineda 28. Thorns on trunks or branches present — 2928. Thorns on trunks or branches absent — 33 29. Flowers usually unisexual; sepals free; leaves not pellucid-punctate or -lineate — 3029. Flowers bisexual; sepals united at the base (sometimes up to 1/3 or more) with stamens forming a hypanthium; leaves usually pellucid-punctate and/or -lineate — 32 30. Styles, style branches, or stigmas 1-3(-5); native .... Xylosma 30. Styles, style branches, or stigmas (2-)5-12; cultivated and possibly naturalised — 31 31. Fruit a glabrousdrupe; disk glands in a ring outside the stamens; style branches 4-6 (each with bilobed stigma s) .... Flacourtia 31. Fruit a pubescentberry; disk glands alternating with the stamens; style branches 5(-7) .... Dovyalis 32. Disk lobes and stamen filaments free or only united near the base; flowers few to numerous per inflorescence.... Casearia sect. Casearia -OR- Casearia sect. Guidonia 32. Disk lobes and stamen filaments united almost completely or disk lobes apparently absent; flowers generally 1-3 per inflorescence.... Samyda 33. Glands present at the base of the leaves or on petioles — 34 33. Glands absent at the base of the leaves or on petioles — 35 34. Stipules absent (or apparently so); sepals 4-6; style branches or stigmas 1-3(-5) .... Xylosma 34. Stipules present; sepals 7-15(-22); style branches or stigmas 6-8 .... Olmediella 35. Bracts united into a cup below the flowers and fruits — 36  35. Bracts free — 37 36. Stamens 30-50; seeds arillate; fruits frequently with rust-colored pubescence .... Laetia sect. Scypholaetia 36. Stamens 8-10; seeds exarillate, covered in cottony pubescence; fruits glabrous.... Casearia sect. Gossypiospermum 37. Leaves never pellucid-punctate or -lineate; glands at leaf teeth (if leaves toothed) usually abaxial, torus-shaped, and persistent; disk glands present, globose, nectariferous; anther dehiscence extrorse; seeds exarillate — 3837. Leaves usually pellucid-punctate or -lineate; glands at leaf teeth (if leaves toothed) usually marginal, conical or hair-like, and deciduous; disk glands absent or present, if present, in the shape of ligulate staminodes, not nectariferous; anther dehiscence introrse; seeds usually arillate — 40 38. Leaf-like stipules (i.e., two ""leaves"" of different shape or size at a node) usually present; inflorescences spikes, racemes, corymbs, or fascicles; style 1; outer filamentous staminodes often present .... Azara 38. Leaf-like stipules absent; inflorescences fascicles or short racemes; styles or style branches 1-7; outer filamentous staminodes lacking — 39 39. Styles, style branches, or stigmas 5-7; cultivated .... Dovyalis 39. Styles, style branches, or stigmas 1-3(-5); native .... Xylosma 40. Dioecious; sepals 4, obviously connate; leaves entire, glabrous.... Neoptychocarpus 40. Bisexual; sepals 4-5(-9), connate or free; leaves entire or toothed, glabrous or pubescent — 41 41. Disk glands absent or obscure — 42 41. Disk glands present — 43 42. Sepals fused into a tube, at least basally, usually more .... Samyda 42. Sepals free.... Laetia 43. Stamens 5-12(-22), often included within the sepals .... Casearia 43. Stamens 20-100, usually exposed — 44 44. Anthers linear-elongate; disk inside the stamens; stellate hairs on the leaves commonly present .... Ryania 44. Anthers globose; disk glands inside or alternating with the stamens; hairs simple — 45 45. Stamens 20-40; stigma peltate.... Zuelania 45. Stamens 80-100; stigma small, capitate.... Hecatostemon" Distinguishing characters (always present): Trees or shrubs. Leaves simple. Abatia - opposite leaves, generally montane. Azara - commonly has leaf-like stipules, generally subtropical to temperate in the south. Banara - common genus, especially along rivers or in disturbed areas. Casearia - common genus, inflorescences usually axillary fascicles, leaves with pellucid -punctations or -lines, seeds arillate (sometimes confused with Xylosma, which lacks the pellucid-punctations, has unisexual flowers, and has free [and sometimes more numerous] stamens [visible as remnants even in fruit]; also, Casearia, when toothed, has deciduous conical leaf teeth ( Xylosma) typically has abaxial, persistent, glandular, doughnut or spherical shaped teeth). Hasseltia and Pleuranthodendron - common genera in Central America and northern South America; both have 3-veined leaves with paired glands at base of lamina or apex of petiole (see photo in Alford, 2003). Populus and Salix - generally temperate genera that have unisexual flowers in catkins, flowers have no evident calyx or corolla, and seeds have a coma: a specific structure with a circular bolster with unicellular cotton-like trichomes connected from below. Prockia - common genus, especially in disturbed or seasonally dry areas, 3-merous flowers. Xylosma - common genus, generally dioecious, occasionally with thorns or spines, flowers usually in axillary fascicles (see Casearia for confusion).
[NTK]

Timothy Utteridge & Gemma Bramley (2020). The Kew Tropical Plant Families Identification Handbook, Second Edition. Kew Publishing Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew

Note
Trees, shrubs. Leaves simple, alternate, often toothed. Flowers often small, petals free or 0; disk often present; ovary superior or semi-inferior, 1-locular, placentation parietal. Fruit usually a berry or capsule. Seed often arillate.
Recognition
Characters of similar families: Celastraceae: stamens 3–5, alternate with petals, ovary rarely 1-locular. Euphorbiaceae, Phyllanthaceae: flowers unisexual, ovary usually 3-locular, placentation axileapical. Malvaceae: hairs usually stellate, androecium modified, ovary rarely 1-locular, floral disk absent. Rhamnaceae: petals usually present, usually hooded enclosing anther, ovary rarely 1-locular. Rinorea (Violaceae) in fruit: disk-gland remnants absent, petal remnants sometimes present.
Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs, sometimes armed.
Morphology General Hair
Hairs usually simple
Morphology Leaves Stipules
Stipules present or absent
Morphology Leaves
Leaves simple, alternate, rarely opposite, sometimes pellucid-punctate/striate, usually toothed, tooth apex often with spherical or papillate gland
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Inflorescence axillary or terminal, flowers solitary or in fascicles, cymes, racemes or panicles
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers bisexual or unisexual, actinomorphic, often small; pedicel usually articulated; sepals (2–)3–5(–22), free or partly fused into a lobed cup or tube, rarely absent; petals free, usually isomerous with and similar to sepals, or petals absent; disk usually present, often as several free to connate glands/nectaries (in bisexual or ♂ flowers inter- or extrastaminal) or as a lobed cup adnate to inside of calyx; stamens (1–)4–150, free (except Scyphostegia), arrangement various, often exserted, sometimes on disk rim alternating with disk-lobes; ovary superior, sometimes semi-inferior, 1-locular, rarely falsely divided, placentation parietal-Fruit a berry or capsule, rarely a drupe, wings or bristles etc. absent (except Neopringlea) or represented by persistent ± accrescent sepals and/or petals (e.g. Homalium), style(s) often persistent in fruit
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seed 1–many, often arillate, rarely winged or with long hairs.
Distribution
53 genera, 1,200 species. Pantropical (Salix and Populus also temperate). Largest tropical genera: Homalium (200 species), Casearia (180 species) and Xylosma (120 species). Most genera formerly in Flacourtiaceae.
Ecology
In drylands and wet tropics or subtropics, lowland and upland habitats.
Description Author
Sue Zmarzty
[KTROP-FIH]

Samydaceae, Hutchinson and Dalziel. Flora of West Tropical Africa 1:1. 1954

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs
Morphology Leaves
Leaves simple, alternate, often pellucid-dotted or lined; stipules small, deciduous or absent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers hermaphrodite, actinomorphic, perigynous
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Sepals united in the lower part, imbricate or valvate, persistent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Corolla
Petals the same number or more than the sepals or absent, often persistent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Nectaries
Disk-glands alternate with the stamens
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Androecium
Stamens definite or indefinite in number, in one or more rows, sometimes in bundles opposite the petals; staminodes often present; filaments free or connate at the base; anthers 2-celled, short, opening lengthwise
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium
Ovary free or adnate to the calyx-tube, sessile, 1-celled with 3–5 parietal placentas often towards the top of the cell; style simple or 3–5 distinct styles; ovules few or numerous
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit capsular or indehiscent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds with fleshy copious endosperm and fairly large embryo
[FWTA]

Flacourtiaceae, Hutchinson and Dalziel. Flora of West Tropical Africa 1:1. 1954

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs
Morphology Leaves
Leaves simple, alternate; stipules often soon falling off
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers hermaphrodite or unisexual, often dioecious or polygamous, variously arranged
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Sepals sometimes not distinguishable from the petals, imbricate or open in bud
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Corolla
Petals sometimes not arranged regularly in relation to the sepals, large, small or absent, with or without an opposite scale inside the base, imbricate
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Androecium
Stamens numerous, rarely few, hypogynous, free; anthers 2-celled, often short, opening lengthwise by slits
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium
Ovary 1-celled, with one or more parietal placentas, or rarely the placentas meeting in the middle; ovules 2 or more on each placenta; styles or stigmas as many as the placentas
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit indehiscent, mostly a berry or drupe, very rarely a capsule, sometimes large
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds with fleshy endosperm and medium-sized embryo; cotyledons often broad
[FWTA]

Flacourtiaceae, H. Sleumer (Rijksherbarium, Leiden). Flora of Tropical East Africa. 1975

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs, sometimes with spines on trunk and branches
Morphology Leaves
Leaves spirally arranged, or often distichous, simple, entire, crenate or serrate (crenations mostly glandular), sometimes with pellucid dots and/or lines; lateral nerves pinnate or rarely several from the base; petioles often thickened at the base and (or) the apex; stipules generally present, rarely large and persistent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Pedicels often articulated near the base Inflorescences subterminal or mostly axillary, rarely on the trunk or very rarely on the midrib of the leaves; flowers solitary, or mostly in fascicles, racemes or panicles, apparently essentially cymose, bisexual or unisexual (polygamous, monoecious, or dioecious), regular, 3-poly-merous, spiral or cyclic
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Sepals (2–)3–7 (rarely more), mostly persistent, sometimes accrescent, imbricate or valvate, free or connate at the base into a calyx-tube
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Corolla
Petals 3–8 (rarely more), free, imbricate or valvate, mostly alternating with the sepals and caducous, sometimes persistent and accrescent, often inserted on the margin of a hypogynous or almost perigynous disk, or absent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Receptacle
Receptacle often depressed in the centre, often with appendages such as an extrastaminal disk or disk-lobes, free glands between the stamens, or staminode-like scales inserted on the inner side of the base of the petals, or with true, mostly barbate staminodes which alternate with the stamens
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Androecium
Stamens 5 to numerous, hypogynous, mostly free, or sometimes connate at the base with the staminodes; anthers with 2 thecae, these longitudinally dehiscent, or very rarely opening by apical pores or very short slits
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium
Ovary usually free, rarely semi-inferior, unilocular, with (2–)3–5(–8) parietal placentas; ovules generally numerous, anatropous; styles 1–10, free or connate; stigma sessile
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a fleshy or dry berry or a capsule, rarely a drupe, 1-many-seeded
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds sometimes arillate, with abundant endosperm; embryo straight; cotyledons mostly broad, foliaceous
[FTEA]

Flacourtiaceae, H. Wild. Flora Zambesiaca 1:1. 1960

Morphology General Habit
Trees or shrubs
Morphology Leaves
Leaves petiolate, alternate, simple, entire, crenate or serrate, crenations often glandular
Morphology Leaves Stipules
Stipules caducous or persistent, small or large and foliaceous or wanting
Morphology Reproductive morphology Inflorescences
Inflorescences subterminal or more usually axillary, of racemes, panicles or cymes or reduced to fascicles or glomerules, or flowers solitary
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers
Flowers bisexual or unisexual, monoecious or dioecious, occasionally polygamous, actinomorphic, sepals and petals dissimilar or more rarely spirally arranged and ± undifferentiated; pedicels often articulated
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Calyx
Sepals 3–6 or more, often persistent, sometimes accrescent, valvate or imbricate, free or connate below into a calyx-tube (or receptacle ?)
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Corolla
Petals 3–12 or rarely more, sometimes accrescent, free, valvate or imbricate, often inserted on the margin of a hypogynous or perigynous disk, or absent
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Nectaries
Disk extrastaminal or with free glands between the stamens or of staminode-like scales inserted at the base of the petals (or of threads or corona-like outside our area), often adnate to the receptacle or developed as appendages to the receptacle
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Androecium
Stamens 5–?, free or rarely connate into a cylinder, sometimes alternating with staminodes; anthers 2-thecous, dehiscing longitudinally, or rarely by terminal pores, connective sometimes appendaged
Morphology Reproductive morphology Flowers Gynoecium
Ovary superior or more rarely semi-inferior, 1-locular with 2–8 parietal placentas or incompletely 2–8-locular; ovules 2 — ?, anatropous; styles 1–10, free or connate
Morphology Reproductive morphology Fruits
Fruit a more or less fleshy berry or a capsule
Morphology Reproductive morphology Seeds
Seeds sometimes arillate, with copious endosperm; embryo straight; cotyledons usually broad, foliaceous
[FZ]

Sources

  • Flora Zambesiaca

    • Flora Zambesiaca
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • Flora of Tropical East Africa

    • Flora of Tropical East Africa
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • Flora of West Tropical Africa

    • Flora of West Tropical Africa
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • Flora of the Cayman Islands

    • Flora of the Cayman Islands
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • Herbarium Catalogue Specimens

    • 'The Herbarium Catalogue, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Published on the Internet http://www.kew.org/herbcat [accessed on Day Month Year]'. Please enter the date on which you consulted the system.
  • Kew Names and Taxonomic Backbone

    • The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants 2025. Published on the Internet at http://www.ipni.org and https://powo.science.kew.org/
    • © Copyright 2023 International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Vascular Plants. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0
  • Neotropikey

    • Milliken, W., Klitgard, B. and Baracat, A. (2009 onwards), Neotropikey - Interactive key and information resources for flowering plants of the Neotropics.
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • Trees of New Guinea

    • Trees of New Guinea
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • The Kew Temperate Plant Families Identification Handbook

    • The Kew Temperate Plant Families Identification Handbook
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
  • The Kew Tropical Plant Families Identification Handbook

    • The Kew Tropical Plant Families Identification Handbook
    • http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0