- Family:
- Rosaceae Juss.
- Genus:
- Malus Mill.
Malus domestica (Suckow) Borkh.

[UNAL]
Bernal, R., G. Galeano, A. Rodríguez, H. Sarmiento y M. Gutiérrez. 2017. Nombres Comunes de las Plantas de Colombia. http://www.biovirtual.unal.edu.co/nombrescomunes/
- Vernacular
- manzana, manzana apí, manzana camuera, manzana común, manzana criolla, manzana de Saint-Valery, manzana reineta
[UPFC]
- Distribution
- Biogeografic region: Andean. Elevation range: 2000–3000 m a.s.l. Cultivated in Colombia. Colombian departments: Antioquia, Boyacá, Caldas, Cauca, Cundinamarca, Nariño, Valle del Cauca.
- Habit
- Shrub, Tree.
- Ecology
- Habitat according IUCN Habitats Classification: forest and woodland, shrubland, artificial - terrestrial.
[UPB]
The Useful Plants of Boyacá project
- Ecology
- Alt. 2000 - 3000 m.
- Distribution
- Cultivated in Colombia.
- Conservation
- Not Evaluated.
- Morphology General Habit
- Shrub or tree.
[KSP]
Kew Species Profiles
- General Description
-
Apple is the fruit of Malus pumila, one of the most widely cultivated fruit trees in temperate regions of the world - growing in over 93 countries. It belongs in the family Rosaceae, which also contains roses and other edible fruit species such as pears, plums and raspberries.
Selection over thousands of years has produced an enormous diversity of apple cultivars varying in shape, colour, sweetness, crispness and storability. Red Delicious, Golden Delicious, Braeburn, Cox, Pink Lady, Royal Gala and Bramley represent just a few apple varieties found in supermarkets in temperate countries. The majority of apples are eaten fresh although there are varieties grown for cooking, canning, juicing and cider and vinegar production.
Apples are rich in vitamin A and C, and are an excellent source of carbohydrates and fibre. Beyond their value as a food crop, apples have played a significant role in culture, art, history, religion and technology. Apple trees blossom in the spring and many types are very ornamental.
- Species Profile
-
Geography and distribution
It is likely that the apple we cultivate today originated in Central Asia - in the region which includes Asia Minor, Caucasus, Kazakhstan and western China. Archaeological evidence suggests that our Bronze Age ancestors collected small wild apples. However, it wasn't until the advent of grafting that the extensive cultivation of apples could occur. Records show that a form of apple resembling the domesticated apple occurred in the Near East 4,000 years ago, which is consistent with the date when grafting was first being used. The domesticated apple was then brought to Europe and North Africa by the Greeks and Romans before spreading worldwide. Today apples are mainly grown in temperate climates, although some varieties are adapted to grow in tropical and subtropical parts of the world.
Commercially, China leads the way with around 40% of the world's apple production, while the United States of America is a distant second with 7.5%.
DescriptionOverview: Malus domestica is a deciduous tree growing up to 5 metres tall in cultivation and up to 9 metres tall in the wild.
Leaves: Alternately arranged, dark green, simple oval-shaped with a serrated edge.
Flowers: Blossoms are white to pale pink and develop in the spring at the same time as the budding of the leaves. Flowers are 3-4 cm in diameter. Each has 5 petals with 20 stamens which are about half the length of the petals. The ovary is inferior, positioned beneath the sepals, petals and stamens. It contains 5 locules (chambers), each with 2 ovules. The 5 styles are slightly longer than the stamens.
Fruits: The edible part of the plant is the pome which is essentially a womb that encloses the inedible true fruit. Commercial varieties are up to 8 cm in diameter with red, yellow, green or pink skin. The flesh is whitish sometimes with a pink or yellow tinge.
SynonymsMalus communis Poiret, M. dasyphylla Borkhausen, M. dasyphylla var. domestica Koidzumi, M. domestica Borkhausen, M. domestica subsp. pumila (Miller) Likhonos, M. pumila var. domestica C. K. Schneider, M. niedzwetzkyana Dieck ex Koehne, M. sylvestris Miller subsp. mitis Mansfeld, Pyrus malus Linnaeus, P. malus var. pumila Henry.
UsesAs well as being eaten raw, apples can be baked or stewed, used in sauces, and in pies and cakes. Apples can be juiced or fermented to produce cider and vinegar. Apples have long been considered to have health-giving properties, and while the old saying 'an apple a day keeps the doctor away' may be somewhat hopeful, apples do contain vitamin C and antioxidants which help lower the risk of certain types of cancer as well as the risk of heart disease and stroke. They are also high in fibre and potassium and low in sodium.
The bark of the apple tree can be used to make a yellow dye.
Throughout history apples have played a significant role in art and culture. Apples have inspired many myths and legends. The most famous association of the apple is the story of Adam and Eve in the Garden of Eden. Although the Bible doesn't specify which kind of fruit tree was used to tempt Eve, numerous works of art depict it as an apple. The apple is therefore symbolic of temptation. In Greek, Russian, Norse and other mythologies the apples were frequently used as symbols of immortality, reincarnation, love and romance.
Millennium Seed Bank: Seed storageThe Millennium Seed Bank Partnership aims to save plants worldwide, focusing on those plants which are under threat and those which are of most use in the future. Once seeds have been collected they are dried, packaged and stored at -20°C in Kew's Millennium Seed Bank vault.
Number of seed collections stored in the Millennium Seed Bank: One
Seed storage behaviour: Orthodox (the seeds of this plant can be dried to low moisture contents without significantly reducing their viability. This means they are suitable for long-term frozen storage such as at the MSB)
Germination testing: Successful
Crop wild relatives of appleThe Millennium Seed Bank and the Global Crop Diversity Trust are engaged in a ten-year project, called 'Adapting Agriculture to Climate Change'. The project aims to protect, collect and prepare the wild relatives of 29 key food crops, including apple, so that they are available to pre-breeders for the development of new varieties that are more resilient to the effects of climate change.
There is an enormous amount of diversity found in apples. However, many varieties are lost because they do not meet the commercial standards for storage and appearance or are hard to cultivate and susceptible to diseases. Conserving these varieties is important because they are a genetic storehouse which can safeguard the future of the fruit.
Apples are susceptible to many pests and diseases, and conventional commercial production relies heavily on agrochemicals to maintain yields and to drive away pests. Applescab, a fungal disease, is the most devastating disease of apple worldwide. Other diseases include powdery mildew and fireblight. As these diseases evolve, crop diversity will be needed to support continued yields and to breed resistance.
The greatest source of genetic diversity comes from crop wild relatives which, in addition to the varieties, can be used in breeding programs to protect the crop against disease and environmental stress.
This species at KewPressed and dried specimens of Malus domestica are held in Kew's Herbarium, where they are available to researchers by appointment.
- Distribution
- China
- Ecology
- Most varieties are adapted to temperate climates and prefer fertile, cool, damp soil. Suitable for sandy, loamy, and clayey soils.
- Conservation
- Widespread in cultivation.
- Hazards
-
Contains the toxin hydrogen cyanide in the seeds and possibly in the leaves, but not in the fruit. When consumed in excess hydrogen cyanide can cause respiratory failure and even death.
[CPLC]
Bernal, R., Gradstein, S.R. & Celis, M. (eds.). 2015. Catálogo de plantas y líquenes de Colombia. Instituto de Ciencias Naturales, Universidad Nacional de Colombia, Bogotá. http://catalogoplantasdecolombia.unal.edu.co
- Distribution
- Cultivada en Colombia; Alt. 2000 - 3000 m.; Andes.
- Morphology General Habit
- Arbusto, árbol
[UPFC]
- Use Environmental
- Environmental uses.
- Use Fuel
- Used for fuels.
- Use Gene Sources
- Used as gene sources.
- Use Food
- Used for food.
- Use Materials
- Used as material.
- Use Medicines
- Medical uses.
- Use Poisons
- Poisons.
- Use Social
- Social uses.
[UPB]
- Use Gene Sources
- Crop wild relatives which may possess beneficial traits of value in breeding programmes (State of the World's Plants 2016).
- Use Medicines Unspecified Medicinal Disorders
- Medicinal (Instituto Humboldt 2014).
Native to:
Afghanistan, Kazakhstan, Kirgizstan, Pakistan, Tadzhikistan, Uzbekistan, Xinjiang
Introduced into:
Alabama, Alaska, Albania, Argentina Northeast, Argentina South, Arkansas, Azores, Baleares, Baltic States, Belarus, Belgium, British Columbia, Bulgaria, California, Central European Rus, Colorado, Connecticut, Cyprus, Czechoslovakia, Delaware, Denmark, District of Columbia, East European Russia, East Himalaya, Ecuador, Falkland Is., Finland, France, Georgia, Germany, Great Britain, Greece, Hungary, Illinois, Indiana, Iowa, Iraq, Ireland, Italy, Kansas, Kentucky, Korea, Krym, Louisiana, Madeira, Maine, Manitoba, Maryland, Massachusetts, Michigan, Minnesota, Mississippi, Missouri, Montana, Nebraska, Nepal, Netherlands, Nevada, New Brunswick, New Hampshire, New Jersey, New Mexico, New South Wales, New York, Newfoundland, North Carolina, North Caucasus, North Dakota, Norway, Nova Scotia, Ohio, Ontario, Oregon, Pennsylvania, Poland, Prince Edward I., Québec, Rhode I., Romania, South Carolina, Spain, Sweden, Tennessee, Turkmenistan, Ukraine, Utah, Vermont, Victoria, Virginia, West Virginia, Wisconsin, Wyoming, Yugoslavia
- Malus anisophylla Sumnev.
- Malus apetala Poit. & Turpin
- Malus astracanica Dum.Cours.
- Malus batavica Poit. & Turpin
- Malus calvilla Poit. & Turpin
- Malus chitralensis Vassilcz.
- Malus communis Desf.
- Malus cylindracea A.Sav.
- Malus dasyphylla Borkh.
- Malus dioica (Moench) Medik.
- Malus dolichomorpha Juz.
- Malus domestica var. calvillea Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. caucasica Likhonos
- Malus domestica var. dasyphylla (Borkh.) Langenf.
- Malus domestica subsp. hybrida Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. intermedia Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. italotaurica Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. macrocarpa Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. medioasiatica Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. occidentalieuropaea Likhonos
- Malus domestica var. parmaenea Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. pumila (Mill.) Likhonos
- Malus domestica var. renettea Likhonos
- Malus domestica subsp. rossica Likhonos
- Malus fontanesiana Spach
- Malus frutescens Medik.
- Malus glabra A.Sav.
- Malus kirghisorum Al.Fed. & Fed.
- Malus kudrjaschevii Sumnev.
- Malus linczevskii Poljakov
- Malus livida A.Sav.
- Malus malus (L.) Voss
- Malus niedzwetzkyana Dieck
- Malus paradisiaca (L.) Medik.
- Malus passipoma Poit. & Turpin
- Malus persicifolia (Popov) Sumnev.
- Malus praecox Borkh.
- Malus pumila Mill.
- Malus rambura Poit. & Turpin
- Malus santonum A.Sav.
- Malus sieversii (Ledeb.) M.Roem.
- Malus sieversii var. anisophylla (Sumnev.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii var. caspiriensis (Langenf.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. cerea Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. chitralensis (Vassilcz.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. flava Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. flavorosea Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. flavorubens Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. gilva Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. hissarica (Kudr.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii subsp. hissarica (Kudr.) Likhonos
- Malus sieversii f. insipida Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. jarmolenkoi (Poljakov) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii var. juzepczukii (Vassilcz.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii subsp. kirghisorum (Al.Fed. & Fed.) Likhonos ex Korovina
- Malus sieversii var. kirghisorum (Al.Fed. & Fed.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii var. kudrjaschevii (Sumnev.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. laetevirida Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. linczevskii (Poljakov) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. media Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. niedzwetzkyana (Dieck) Langenf.
- Malus sieversii f. ochrorubra Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. persicifolia (Popov) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. pomacea Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. purpureofasciata Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. rubrifasciata Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. rubrolateralis Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. schischkinii (Poljakov) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. suffusa Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii var. tianschanica (Sumnev.) Ponomar.
- Malus sieversii f. viridicerea Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. viridifasciata Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. viridirubra Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. viridis Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. viridula Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus sieversii f. xanthella Bondarenko ex O.N.Korovina & N.M.Chernomorskya
- Malus spumosa Poit. & Turpin
- Malus sylvestris var. dasyphylla (Borkh.) Ponomar.
- Malus sylvestris subsp. paradisiaca (L.) Soó
- Malus sylvestris var. praecox (Nyman) Ponomar.
- Malus tatarica K.Koch
- Malus tianschanica Sumnev.
- Malus turbinoides A.Sav.
- Malus umbellata Gilib.
- Malus upsalensis Dippel
- Malus violacea Poit. & Turpin
- Malus viridis A.Sav.
- Pyrenia malus Clairv.
- Pyrus apiosa Steud.
- Pyrus armeniacifolia Dochnahl
- Pyrus astracanica (Dum.Cours.) DC.
- Pyrus cavillea Steud.
- Pyrus cestiana Steud.
- Pyrus chitralensis (Vassilcz.) M.F.Fay & Christenh.
- Pyrus dioica Moench
- Pyrus divisa Link
- Pyrus epirotica Steud.
- Pyrus eryostyla (Moris) Guss.
- Pyrus fontanesiana (Spach) Steud.
- Pyrus kirghisorum (Al.Fed. & Fed.) M.F.Fay & Christenh.
- Pyrus malus L.
- Pyrus malus var. cestiana L.
- Pyrus malus var. paradisiaca L.
- Pyrus malus var. prasomila L.
- Pyrus malus var. rubelliana L.
- Pyrus niedzwetzkyana (Dieck) Hemsl.
- Pyrus paris M.F.Fay & Christenh.
- Pyrus pollveria Lej.
- Pyrus praecox Pall.
- Pyrus prasomila (L.) Steud.
- Pyrus pulverulenta K.Koch
- Pyrus pumila (Mill.) Steud.
- Pyrus rubelliana Steud.
- Pyrus saxatilis Schltdl. ex Ledeb.
- Pyrus songarica Fisch. ex Juz.
- Sorbus malus (L.) Crantz
- English
- Apple, Orchard Apple
- Spanish
- Manzana.
Malus domestica (Suckow) Borkh. appears in other Kew resources:
Date | Reference | Identified As | Barcode | Type Status | Has image? |
---|---|---|---|---|---|
Nov 1, 1977 | Favrat, L. [6379], Switzerland | K000782654 | No | ||
Sheahan, M.C. [MCS92], United Kingdom | K000782653 | No | |||
Jul 1, 1962 | s.coll [2839], Iraq | Pyrus malus | K000782677 | No | |
Jul 1, 1962 | Gillett [12408], Iraq | Pyrus malus | K000782676 | No | |
Pyrus malus | 11660.000 | No | |||
s.coll [s.n.], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782632 | No | ||
Gamble, J.S. [29195], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782620 | No | ||
Cowan [2452], Iran | Pyrus malus | K000782657 | No | ||
Gamble, J.S. [30457], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782630 | No | ||
Thurston, E. [s.n.], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782634 | No | ||
s.coll [s.n.], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782623 | No | ||
Auh [s.n.], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782631 | No | ||
Hubbard, C.E. [s.n.], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus | K000782633 | No | ||
Karelin [1467], Kazakhstan | Pyrus malus | K000782680 | No | ||
s.coll. [Cat. no. 7111], India | Pyrus malus | K001126739 | Yes | ||
s.coll [6413], Uzbekistan | Malus niedzwetzkyana | K000782678 | No | ||
Jun 1, 1950 | C.E.S. [s.n.], United Kingdom | Malus pumila | K000782617 | No | |
Cowan [2314], Iran | Malus pumila | K000782656 | No | ||
Davis [33594], Ukraine | Malus pumila | K000782608 | No | ||
Alston, A.H.G. [29], Greece | Malus pumila | K000782611 | No | ||
s.coll [s.n.], Philippines | Pyrus malus var. paradisiaca | K000782637 | No | ||
Harvey, H.H. [s.n.], United Kingdom | Pyrus malus var. paradisiaca | K000782635 | No | ||
s.coll [s.n.], Philippines | Pyrus malus var. paradisiaca | K000782638 | No |
First published in Theor. Prakt. Handb. Forstbot. 2: 1272 (1803)
Accepted by
- Ackerfield, J. (2015). Flora of Colorado: 1-818. BRIT Press.
- Brako, L. & Zarucchi, J.L. (1993). Catalogue of the Flowering Plants and Gymnosperms of Peru Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 45: i-xl, 1-1286. Missouri Botanical Garden.
- Hnatiuk, R.J. (1990). Census of Australian vascular plants Australian Flora and Fauna Series 11: 1-650.
- Ovczinnikov, P.N. (ed.) (1975). Flora Tadzhikskoi SSR 4: 1-576. Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, Moskva.
- Ri?abinina, Z.N. & Kni?azev, M.S. (2009). Opredelitel sosudistykh rastenii Orenburgskoi oblasti: 1-757. Moskva: KMK.
- Zuloaga, F.O., Morrone, O. , Belgrano, M.J., Marticorena, C. & Marchesi, E. (eds.) (2008). Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 107: 1-3348. Missouri Botanical Garden.
Not accepted by
- Allred, K.W. (2012). Flora Neomexicana, ed. 2, 1: 1-599. Range Science Herbarium, Las Cruces, New Mexico. [Cited as Malus pumila.]
- Chang, C.S., Kim, H. & Chang, K.S. (2014). Provisional checklist of vascular plants for the Korea peninsula flora (KPF): 1-660. DESIGNPOST. [Cited as Malus pumila.]
- Dobignard, A. & Chatelain, C. (2013). Index synonymique de la flore d'Afrique du nord 5: 1-451. Éditions des conservatoire et jardin botaniques, Genève. [Cited as Malus pumila.]
- Grierson, A.J.C. & Long, D.G. (1987). Flora of Bhutan 1(3): 466-834. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. [Cited as Malus pumila.]
- Lambion, J., Delvosalle, L. & Duvigneaud, J. (2004). Nouvelle flore de la Belgique du G. D. de Luxembourg, du Nord de la France et des régions voisines, ed. 5: 1-1167. Edition du Patrimoine du Jardin botanique national de Belgique. [Cited as Malus sylvestris subsp. mitis.]
- Landrein, S. & al. (2017). Flora of Pakistan 221: 1-161. Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Karachi. [Cited as Malus pumila.]
- Watson, M.F. & al. (eds.) (2011). Flora of Nepal 3: 1-425. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh. [Cited as Malus pumila.]
Literature
Kew Backbone Distributions
- Allred, K.W. (2012). Flora Neomexicana, ed. 2, 1: 1-599. Range Science Herbarium, Las Cruces, New Mexico.
- Bailey, C. & al. (2015). Guide to the Vascular Plants of Tennessee: 1-813. University of Tennessee press.
- Browicz, K. & al. (1969). Rosaceae I Flora Iranica 66: 1-217. Naturhistorisches Museums Wien.
- Chang, C.S., Kim, H. & Chang, K.S. (2014). Provisional checklist of vascular plants for the Korea peninsula flora (KPF): 1-660. DESIGNPOST.
- Flora of North America Editorial Committee (2014). Flora of North America North of Mexico 9: 1-713. Oxford University Press, New York, Oxford.
- Grierson, A.J.C. & Long, D.G. (1987). Flora of Bhutan 1(3): 466-834. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.
- Hansen, A. & Sunding, P. (1993). Flora of Macaronesia. Checklist of vascular plants. 4. revised edition Sommerfeltia 17: 1-295.
- Hnatiuk, R.J. (1990). Census of Australian vascular plants Australian Flora and Fauna Series 11: 1-650.
- Jørgensen, P.M. & León-Yánez, S. (eds.) (1999). Catalogue of the Vascular Plants of Ecuador Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 75: i-viii, 1-1181. Missouri Botanical Garden.
- Korovin, E.P. & Vvedensky, A.I. (eds.) (1955). Flora Uzbekistana 3: 1-824. Izd-va Akademii nauk Uzbekskoi SSR, Tashkent.
- Kral, R., Diamond, A.R., Ginzbarg, S.L., Hansen, C.J., Haynes, R.R., Keener, B.R., Lelong, M.G., Spaulding, D.D. & Woods, M. (2011). Annotated checklist of the vascular plants of Alabama: 1-112. Botanical reseach institute of Texas.
- Kurtto, A., Sennikov, A.N. & Lampinen, R. (2013). Atlas Florae Europaeae. Distribution of vascular plants in Europe 16: 1-168.
- Landrein, S. & al. (2017). Flora of Pakistan 221: 1-161. Department of Botany, University of Karachi, Karachi.
- Lazkov, G.A. & Sultanova, B.A. (2011). Checklist of vascular plants of Kyrgyzstan Norrlinia 24: 1-166.
- Meikle, R.D. (1977). Flora of Cyprus 1: 1-832. The Bentham-Moxon Trust Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
- Mohlenbrock, R.H. (2014). Vascular Flora of Illinois. A Field Guide, ed. 4: 1-536. Southern Illinois University Press, Carbondale.
- Nikitin, V.V. (ed.) (1949). Flora Turkmenii 4: 1-364. Turkmenskoe gosudarstvennoe izd., Ashkhabad.
- Ovczinnikov, P.N. (ed.) (1975). Flora Tadzhikskoi SSR 4: 1-576. Izd-vo Akademii nauk SSSR, Moskva.
- Paelov, N.V. (ed.) in Pavlov, N.V. (ed.) (1961). Flora Kazakhstana 4: 1-546. Alma-Ata, Izd-vo Akademii nauk Kazakhskoi SSR.
- Townsend, C.C. & Guest, E. (1966). Flora of Iraq 2: 1-184. Ministry of Agriculture & Agrarian Reform, Baghdad.
- Watson, M.F. & al. (eds.) (2011). Flora of Nepal 3: 1-425. Royal Botanic Gardens, Edinburgh.
- Wu, Z. & Raven, P.H. (eds.) (2003). Flora of China 9: 1-494. Science Press (Beijing) & Missouri Botanical Garden Press (St. Louis).
- Zuloaga, F.O., Morrone, O. , Belgrano, M.J., Marticorena, C. & Marchesi, E. (eds.) (2008). Catálogo de las Plantas Vasculares del Cono Sur Monographs in Systematic Botany from the Missouri Botanical Garden 107: 1-3348. Missouri Botanical Garden.
Useful Plants and Fungi of Colombia
- Bernal, R., Gradstein, S.R., & Celis, M. (eds.). (2020). Catálogo de Plantas y Líquenes de Colombia. v1.1. Universidad Nacional de Colombia. Dataset/Checklist. https://doi.org/10.15472/7avdhn
- Cámara-Leret, R., & Dennehy, Z. (2019). Information gaps in indigenous and local knowledge for science-policy assessments. Nature Sustainability 2:736-741.
- Dempewolf, H., Eastwood, R. J., Guarino, L., Khoury, C. K., Müller, J. V. & Toll, J. (2014). Adapting agriculture to climate change: a global initiative to collect, conserve, and use crop wild relatives. Agroecology and Sustainable Food Systems, 38, 369-377.
- Diazgranados et al. (2021). Catalogue of plants of Colombia. Useful Plants and Fungi of Colombia project. In prep.
- Diazgranados, M., Allkin, B., Black N., Cámara-Leret, R., Canteiro C., Carretero J., Eastwood R., Hargreaves S., Hudson A., Milliken W., Nesbitt, M., Ondo, I., Patmore, K., Pironon, S., Turner, R., Ulian, T. (2020). World Checklist of Useful Plant Species. Produced by the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew. Knowledge Network for Biocomplexity.
- FPI (2021). Food Plants International. https://fms.cmsvr.com/fmi/webd/Food_Plants_World?homeurl=https://foodplantsinternational.com/plants/
- GBIF.org (2021). GBIF species matching tool. https://www.gbif.org/tools/species-lookup
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- Jansen, P., Lemmens, R., Oyen, L., Siemonsma, J., Stavast, F. & Van Valkenburg, J. (1991) Plant Resources of South-East Asia. Basic list of species and commodity grouping. Final version. Pudoc, Wageningen.
- Medicinal Plant Names Services (MPNS) v.10 (2021); http://mpns.kew.org/
- RBG, Kew (2021). Kew Economic Botany Collection. https://ecbot.science.kew.org/
- Willis, K.J. (ed.) (2017). State of the World’s Plants 2017. Report. Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew.
-
Art and Illustrations in Digifolia
Digital Image © Board of Trustees, RBG Kew
-
Catálogo de Plantas y Líquenes de Colombia
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
-
Herbarium Catalogue Specimens
Digital Image © Board of Trustees, RBG Kew http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/
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Kew Backbone Distributions
The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Selected Plant Families 2022. Published on the Internet at http://www.ipni.org and http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
© Copyright 2017 World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0
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Kew Living Collection Database
Common Names from Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew Living Collection https://www.kew.org/
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Kew Names and Taxonomic Backbone
The International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Selected Plant Families 2022. Published on the Internet at http://www.ipni.org and http://apps.kew.org/wcsp/
© Copyright 2017 International Plant Names Index and World Checklist of Selected Plant Families. http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0
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Kew Science Photographs
Copyright applied to individual images
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Kew Species Profiles
Kew Species Profiles
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
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Universidad Nacional de Colombia
ColPlantA database
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
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Useful Plants and Fungi of Colombia
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
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Useful Plants of Boyacá Project
ColPlantA database
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by-nc-sa/3.0
http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0/